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.. hazmat::

RSA
===

.. module:: cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa

`RSA`_ is a `public-key`_ algorithm for encrypting and signing messages.

Generation
~~~~~~~~~~

Unlike symmetric cryptography, where the key is typically just a random series
of bytes, RSA keys have a complex internal structure with `specific
mathematical properties`_.

.. function:: generate_private_key(public_exponent, key_size)

.. versionadded:: 0.5

.. versionchanged:: 3.0

Tightened restrictions on ``public_exponent``.

Generates a new RSA private key.
    ``key_size`` describes how many :term:`bits` long the key should be. Larger
    keys provide more security; currently ``1024`` and below are considered
    breakable while ``2048`` or ``4096`` are reasonable default key sizes for
    new keys. The ``public_exponent`` indicates what one mathematical property
    of the key generation will be. Unless you have a specific reason to do
    otherwise, you should always `use 65537`_.

.. doctest::

>>> from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric import rsa
        >>> private_key = rsa.generate_private_key(
        ...     public_exponent=65537,
        ...     key_size=2048,
        ... )

:param int public_exponent: The public exponent of the new key.
        Either 65537 or 3 (for legacy purposes). Almost everyone should
        `use 65537`_.

:param int key_size: The length of the modulus in :term:`bits`. For keys
        generated in 2015 it is strongly recommended to be
        `at least 2048`_ (See page 41). It must not be less than 512.

:return: An instance of
        :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPrivateKey`.

Key loading
~~~~~~~~~~~

If you already have an on-disk key in the PEM format (which are recognizable by
the distinctive ``-----BEGIN {format}-----`` and ``-----END {format}-----``
markers), you can load it:

.. code-block:: pycon

>>> from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import serialization

>>> with open("path/to/key.pem", "rb") as key_file:
    ...     private_key = serialization.load_pem_private_key(
    ...         key_file.read(),
    ...         password=None,
    ...     )

Serialized keys may optionally be encrypted on disk using a password. In this
example we loaded an unencrypted key, and therefore we did not provide a
password. If the key is encrypted we can pass a ``bytes`` object as the
``password`` argument.

There is also support for :func:`loading public keys in the SSH format
<cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.load_ssh_public_key>`.

Key serialization
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

If you have a private key that you've loaded you can use
:meth:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPrivateKey.private_bytes`
to serialize the key.

.. doctest::

>>> from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import serialization
    >>> pem = private_key.private_bytes(
    ...    encoding=serialization.Encoding.PEM,
    ...    format=serialization.PrivateFormat.PKCS8,
    ...    encryption_algorithm=serialization.BestAvailableEncryption(b'mypassword')
    ... )
    >>> pem.splitlines()[0]
    b'-----BEGIN ENCRYPTED PRIVATE KEY-----'

It is also possible to serialize without encryption using
:class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.NoEncryption`.

.. doctest::

>>> pem = private_key.private_bytes(
    ...    encoding=serialization.Encoding.PEM,
    ...    format=serialization.PrivateFormat.TraditionalOpenSSL,
    ...    encryption_algorithm=serialization.NoEncryption()
    ... )
    >>> pem.splitlines()[0]
    b'-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----'

For public keys you can use
:meth:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPublicKey.public_bytes`
to serialize the key.

.. doctest::

>>> from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import serialization
    >>> public_key = private_key.public_key()
    >>> pem = public_key.public_bytes(
    ...    encoding=serialization.Encoding.PEM,
    ...    format=serialization.PublicFormat.SubjectPublicKeyInfo
    ... )
    >>> pem.splitlines()[0]
    b'-----BEGIN PUBLIC KEY-----'

Signing
~~~~~~~

A private key can be used to sign a message. This allows anyone with the public
key to verify that the message was created by someone who possesses the
corresponding private key. RSA signatures require a specific hash function, and
padding to be used. Here is an example of signing ``message`` using RSA, with a
secure hash function and padding:

.. doctest::

>>> from cryptography.hazmat.primitives import hashes
    >>> from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric import padding
    >>> message = b"A message I want to sign"
    >>> signature = private_key.sign(
    ...     message,
    ...     padding.PSS(
    ...         mgf=padding.MGF1(hashes.SHA256()),
    ...         salt_length=padding.PSS.MAX_LENGTH
    ...     ),
    ...     hashes.SHA256()
    ... )

Valid paddings for signatures are
:class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.PSS` and
:class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.PKCS1v15`. ``PSS``
is the recommended choice for any new protocols or applications, ``PKCS1v15``
should only be used to support legacy protocols.

If your data is too large to be passed in a single call, you can hash it
separately and pass that value using
:class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.utils.Prehashed`.

.. doctest::

>>> from cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric import utils
    >>> chosen_hash = hashes.SHA256()
    >>> hasher = hashes.Hash(chosen_hash)
    >>> hasher.update(b"data & ")
    >>> hasher.update(b"more data")
    >>> digest = hasher.finalize()
    >>> sig = private_key.sign(
    ...     digest,
    ...     padding.PSS(
    ...         mgf=padding.MGF1(hashes.SHA256()),
    ...         salt_length=padding.PSS.MAX_LENGTH
    ...     ),
    ...     utils.Prehashed(chosen_hash)
    ... )

Verification
~~~~~~~~~~~~

The previous section describes what to do if you have a private key and want to
sign something. If you have a public key, a message, a signature, and the
signing algorithm that was used you can check that the private key associated
with a given public key was used to sign that specific message.  You can obtain
a public key to use in verification using
:func:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.load_pem_public_key`,
:func:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.load_der_public_key`,
:meth:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPublicNumbers.public_key`
, or
:meth:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPrivateKey.public_key`.

.. doctest::

>>> public_key = private_key.public_key()
    >>> public_key.verify(
    ...     signature,
    ...     message,
    ...     padding.PSS(
    ...         mgf=padding.MGF1(hashes.SHA256()),
    ...         salt_length=padding.PSS.MAX_LENGTH
    ...     ),
    ...     hashes.SHA256()
    ... )

If the signature does not match, ``verify()`` will raise an
:class:`~cryptography.exceptions.InvalidSignature` exception.

If your data is too large to be passed in a single call, you can hash it
separately and pass that value using
:class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.utils.Prehashed`.

.. doctest::

>>> chosen_hash = hashes.SHA256()
    >>> hasher = hashes.Hash(chosen_hash)
    >>> hasher.update(b"data & ")
    >>> hasher.update(b"more data")
    >>> digest = hasher.finalize()
    >>> public_key.verify(
    ...     sig,
    ...     digest,
    ...     padding.PSS(
    ...         mgf=padding.MGF1(hashes.SHA256()),
    ...         salt_length=padding.PSS.MAX_LENGTH
    ...     ),
    ...     utils.Prehashed(chosen_hash)
    ... )

Encryption
~~~~~~~~~~

RSA encryption is interesting because encryption is performed using the
**public** key, meaning anyone can encrypt data. The data is then decrypted
using the **private** key.

Like signatures, RSA supports encryption with several different padding
options. Here's an example using a secure padding and hash function:

.. doctest::

>>> message = b"encrypted data"
    >>> ciphertext = public_key.encrypt(
    ...     message,
    ...     padding.OAEP(
    ...         mgf=padding.MGF1(algorithm=hashes.SHA256()),
    ...         algorithm=hashes.SHA256(),
    ...         label=None
    ...     )
    ... )

Valid paddings for encryption are
:class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.OAEP` and
:class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.PKCS1v15`. ``OAEP``
is the recommended choice for any new protocols or applications, ``PKCS1v15``
should only be used to support legacy protocols.

Decryption
~~~~~~~~~~

Once you have an encrypted message, it can be decrypted using the private key:

.. doctest::

>>> plaintext = private_key.decrypt(
    ...     ciphertext,
    ...     padding.OAEP(
    ...         mgf=padding.MGF1(algorithm=hashes.SHA256()),
    ...         algorithm=hashes.SHA256(),
    ...         label=None
    ...     )
    ... )
    >>> plaintext == message
    True

Padding
~~~~~~~

.. module:: cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding

.. class:: AsymmetricPadding

.. versionadded:: 0.2

.. attribute:: name

.. class:: PSS(mgf, salt_length)

.. versionadded:: 0.3

.. versionchanged:: 0.4
        Added ``salt_length`` parameter.

PSS (Probabilistic Signature Scheme) is a signature scheme defined in
    :rfc:`3447`. It is more complex than PKCS1 but possesses a `security proof`_.
    This is the `recommended padding algorithm`_ for RSA signatures. It cannot
    be used with RSA encryption.

:param mgf: A mask generation function object. At this time the only
        supported MGF is :class:`MGF1`.

:param int salt_length: The length of the salt. It is recommended that this
        be set to ``PSS.DIGEST_LENGTH`` or ``PSS.MAX_LENGTH``.

.. attribute:: MAX_LENGTH

Pass this attribute to ``salt_length`` to get the maximum salt length
        available.

.. attribute:: DIGEST_LENGTH

.. versionadded:: 37.0.0

Pass this attribute to ``salt_length`` to set the salt length to the
        byte length of the digest passed when calling ``sign``. Note that this
        is **not** the length of the digest passed to ``MGF1``.

.. attribute:: AUTO

.. versionadded:: 37.0.0

Pass this attribute to ``salt_length`` to automatically determine the
        salt length when verifying. Raises ``ValueError`` if used when signing.

.. attribute:: mgf

:type: :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.MGF`

.. versionadded:: 42.0.0

The padding's mask generation function (MGF).

.. class:: OAEP(mgf, algorithm, label)

.. versionadded:: 0.4

OAEP (Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding) is a padding scheme defined in
    :rfc:`3447`. It provides probabilistic encryption and is `proven secure`_
    against several attack types. This is the `recommended padding algorithm`_
    for RSA encryption. It cannot be used with RSA signing.

:param mgf: A mask generation function object. At this time the only
        supported MGF is :class:`MGF1`.

:param algorithm: An instance of
        :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.hashes.HashAlgorithm`.

:param bytes label: A label to apply. This is a rarely used field and
        should typically be set to ``None`` or ``b""``, which are equivalent.

.. attribute:: algorithm

:type: :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.hashes.HashAlgorithm`

.. versionadded:: 42.0.0

The padding's hash algorithm.

.. attribute:: mgf

:type: :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.MGF`

.. versionadded:: 42.0.0

The padding's mask generation function (MGF).

.. class:: PKCS1v15()

.. versionadded:: 0.3

PKCS1 v1.5 (also known as simply PKCS1) is a simple padding scheme
    developed for use with RSA keys. It is defined in :rfc:`3447`. This padding
    can be used for signing and encryption.

It is not recommended that ``PKCS1v15`` be used for new applications,
    :class:`OAEP` should be preferred for encryption and :class:`PSS` should be
    preferred for signatures.

.. warning::

Our implementation of PKCS1 v1.5 decryption is not constant time. See
        :doc:`/limitations` for details.

.. function:: calculate_max_pss_salt_length(key, hash_algorithm)

.. versionadded:: 1.5

:param key: An RSA public or private key.
    :param hash_algorithm: A
        :class:`cryptography.hazmat.primitives.hashes.HashAlgorithm`.
    :returns int: The computed salt length.

Computes the length of the salt that :class:`PSS` will use if
    :data:`PSS.MAX_LENGTH` is used.

Mask generation functions
-------------------------

.. class:: MGF

.. versionadded:: 37.0.0

.. class:: MGF1(algorithm)

.. versionadded:: 0.3

.. versionchanged:: 0.6
        Removed the deprecated ``salt_length`` parameter.

MGF1 (Mask Generation Function 1) is used as the mask generation function
    in :class:`PSS` and :class:`OAEP` padding. It takes a hash algorithm.

:param algorithm: An instance of
        :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.hashes.HashAlgorithm`.

Numbers
~~~~~~~

.. currentmodule:: cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa

These classes hold the constituent components of an RSA key. They are useful
only when more traditional :doc:`/hazmat/primitives/asymmetric/serialization`
is unavailable.

.. class:: RSAPublicNumbers(e, n)

.. versionadded:: 0.5

The collection of integers that make up an RSA public key.

.. attribute:: n

:type: int

The public modulus.

.. attribute:: e

:type: int

The public exponent.

.. method:: public_key()

:returns: A new instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPublicKey`.

.. class:: RSAPrivateNumbers(p, q, d, dmp1, dmq1, iqmp, public_numbers)

.. versionadded:: 0.5

The collection of integers that make up an RSA private key.

.. warning::

With the exception of the integers contained in the
        :class:`RSAPublicNumbers` all attributes of this class must be kept
        secret. Revealing them will compromise the security of any
        cryptographic operations performed with a key loaded from them.

.. attribute:: public_numbers

:type: :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPublicNumbers`

The :class:`RSAPublicNumbers` which makes up the RSA public key
        associated with this RSA private key.

.. attribute:: p

:type: int

``p``, one of the two primes composing ``n``.

.. attribute:: q

:type: int

``q``, one of the two primes composing ``n``.

.. attribute:: d

:type: int

The private exponent.

.. attribute:: dmp1

:type: int

A `Chinese remainder theorem`_ coefficient used to speed up RSA
        operations. Calculated as: d mod (p-1)

.. attribute:: dmq1

:type: int

A `Chinese remainder theorem`_ coefficient used to speed up RSA
        operations. Calculated as: d mod (q-1)

.. attribute:: iqmp

:type: int

A `Chinese remainder theorem`_ coefficient used to speed up RSA
        operations. Calculated as: q\ :sup:`-1` mod p

.. method:: private_key(*, unsafe_skip_rsa_key_validation=False)

:param unsafe_skip_rsa_key_validation:

.. versionadded:: 39.0.0

A keyword-only argument that defaults to ``False``. If ``True``
            RSA private keys will not be validated. This significantly speeds up
            loading the keys, but is :term:`unsafe` unless you are certain
            the key is valid. User supplied keys should never be loaded with
            this parameter set to ``True``. If you do load an invalid key this
            way and attempt to use it OpenSSL may hang, crash, or otherwise
            misbehave.

:type unsafe_skip_rsa_key_validation: bool

:returns: An instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPrivateKey`.

Handling partial RSA private keys
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

If you are trying to load RSA private keys yourself you may find that not all
parameters required by ``RSAPrivateNumbers`` are available. In particular the
`Chinese Remainder Theorem`_ (CRT) values ``dmp1``, ``dmq1``, ``iqmp`` may be
missing or present in a different form. For example, `OpenPGP`_ does not include
the ``iqmp``, ``dmp1`` or ``dmq1`` parameters.

The following functions are provided for users who want to work with keys like
this without having to do the math themselves.

.. function:: rsa_crt_iqmp(p, q)

.. versionadded:: 0.4

Computes the ``iqmp`` (also known as ``qInv``) parameter from the RSA
    primes ``p`` and ``q``.

.. function:: rsa_crt_dmp1(private_exponent, p)

.. versionadded:: 0.4

Computes the ``dmp1`` parameter from the RSA private exponent (``d``) and
    prime ``p``.

.. function:: rsa_crt_dmq1(private_exponent, q)

.. versionadded:: 0.4

Computes the ``dmq1`` parameter from the RSA private exponent (``d``) and
    prime ``q``.

.. function:: rsa_recover_private_exponent(e, p, q)

.. versionadded:: 43.0.0

Computes the RSA private_exponent (``d``) given the public exponent (``e``)
    and the RSA primes ``p`` and ``q``.

.. note::

This implementation uses the Carmichael totient function to return the
        smallest working value of ``d``. Older RSA implementations, including the
        original RSA paper, often used the Euler totient function, which results
        in larger but equally functional private exponents. The private exponents
        resulting from the Carmichael totient function, as returned here, are
        slightly more computationally efficient to use, and some modern standards
        require them.

.. function:: rsa_recover_prime_factors(n, e, d)

.. versionadded:: 0.8

Computes the prime factors ``(p, q)`` given the modulus, public exponent,
    and private exponent.

.. note::

When recovering prime factors this algorithm will always return ``p``
        and ``q`` such that ``p > q``. Note: before 1.5, this function always
        returned ``p`` and ``q`` such that ``p < q``. It was changed because
        libraries commonly require ``p > q``.

:return: A tuple ``(p, q)``

Key interfaces
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

.. class:: RSAPrivateKey

.. versionadded:: 0.2

An `RSA`_ private key.

.. method:: decrypt(ciphertext, padding)

.. versionadded:: 0.4

.. warning::

Our implementation of PKCS1 v1.5 decryption is not constant time. See
            :doc:`/limitations` for details.

Decrypt data that was encrypted with the public key.

:param bytes ciphertext: The ciphertext to decrypt.

:param padding: An instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.AsymmetricPadding`.

:return bytes: Decrypted data.

.. method:: public_key()

:return: :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPublicKey`

An RSA public key object corresponding to the values of the private key.

.. attribute:: key_size

:type: int

The bit length of the modulus.

.. method:: sign(data, padding, algorithm)

.. versionadded:: 1.4
        .. versionchanged:: 1.6
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.utils.Prehashed`
            can now be used as an ``algorithm``.

Sign one block of data which can be verified later by others using the
        public key.

:param data: The message string to sign.
        :type data: :term:`bytes-like`

:param padding: An instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.AsymmetricPadding`.

:param algorithm: An instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.hashes.HashAlgorithm` or
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.utils.Prehashed`
            if the ``data`` you want to sign has already been hashed.

:return bytes: Signature.

.. method:: private_numbers()

Create a
        :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPrivateNumbers`
        object.

:returns: An
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPrivateNumbers`
            instance.

.. method:: private_bytes(encoding, format, encryption_algorithm)

Allows serialization of the key to bytes. Encoding (
        :attr:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.Encoding.PEM` or
        :attr:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.Encoding.DER`),
        format (
        :attr:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.PrivateFormat.TraditionalOpenSSL`,
        :attr:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.PrivateFormat.OpenSSH`
        or
        :attr:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.PrivateFormat.PKCS8`)
        and encryption algorithm (such as
        :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.BestAvailableEncryption`
        or :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.NoEncryption`)
        are chosen to define the exact serialization.

:param encoding: A value from the
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.Encoding` enum.

:param format: A value from the
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.PrivateFormat`
            enum.

:param encryption_algorithm: An instance of an object conforming to the
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.KeySerializationEncryption`
            interface.

:return bytes: Serialized key.

.. class:: RSAPublicKey

.. versionadded:: 0.2

An `RSA`_ public key.

.. method:: encrypt(plaintext, padding)

.. versionadded:: 0.4

Encrypt data with the public key.

:param bytes plaintext: The plaintext to encrypt.

:param padding: An instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.AsymmetricPadding`.

:return bytes: Encrypted data.

:raises ValueError: The data could not be encrypted. One possible cause
            is if ``data`` is too large; RSA keys can only encrypt data that
            is smaller than the key size.

.. attribute:: key_size

:type: int

The bit length of the modulus.

.. method:: public_numbers()

Create a
        :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPublicNumbers`
        object.

:returns: An
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPublicNumbers`
            instance.

.. method:: public_bytes(encoding, format)

:param encoding: A value from the
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.Encoding` enum.

:param format: A value from the
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.serialization.PublicFormat` enum.

:return bytes: Serialized key.

.. method:: verify(signature, data, padding, algorithm)

.. versionadded:: 1.4
        .. versionchanged:: 1.6
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.utils.Prehashed`
            can now be used as an ``algorithm``.

Verify one block of data was signed by the private key
        associated with this public key.

:param signature: The signature to verify.
        :type signature: :term:`bytes-like`

:param data: The message string that was signed.
        :type data: :term:`bytes-like`

:param padding: An instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.AsymmetricPadding`.

:returns: None
        :raises cryptography.exceptions.InvalidSignature: If the signature does
            not validate.

.. method:: recover_data_from_signature(signature, padding, algorithm)

.. versionadded:: 3.3

Recovers the signed data from the signature. The data typically contains
        the digest of the original message string. The ``padding`` and
        ``algorithm`` parameters must match the ones used when the signature
        was created for the recovery to succeed.

The ``algorithm`` parameter can also be set to ``None`` to recover all
        the data present in the signature, without regard to its format or the
        hash algorithm used for its creation.

For
        :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.PKCS1v15`
        padding, this method returns the data after removing the padding layer.
        For standard signatures the data contains the full ``DigestInfo``
        structure.  For non-standard signatures, any data can be returned,
        including zero-length data.

Normally you should use the
        :meth:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.rsa.RSAPublicKey.verify`
        function to validate the signature. But for some non-standard signature
        formats you may need to explicitly recover and validate the signed
        data. The following are some examples:

- Some old Thawte and Verisign timestamp certificates without ``DigestInfo``.
        - Signed MD5/SHA1 hashes in TLS 1.1 or earlier (:rfc:`4346`, section 4.7).
        - IKE version 1 signatures without ``DigestInfo`` (:rfc:`2409`, section 5.1).

:param bytes signature: The signature.

:param padding: An instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.AsymmetricPadding`.
            Recovery is only supported with some of the padding types. (Currently
            only with
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.asymmetric.padding.PKCS1v15`).

:param algorithm: An instance of
            :class:`~cryptography.hazmat.primitives.hashes.HashAlgorithm`.
            Can be ``None`` to return the all the data present in the signature.

:return bytes: The signed data.

:raises cryptography.exceptions.InvalidSignature: If the signature is
            invalid.

:raises cryptography.exceptions.UnsupportedAlgorithm: If signature
            data recovery is not supported with the provided ``padding`` type.

.. _`RSA`: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_(cryptosystem)
.. _`public-key`: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-key_cryptography
.. _`specific mathematical properties`: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_(cryptosystem)#Key_generation
.. _`use 65537`: https://www.daemonology.net/blog/2009-06-11-cryptographic-right-answers.html
.. _`at least 2048`: https://www.cosic.esat.kuleuven.be/ecrypt/ecrypt2/documents/D.SPA.20.pdf
.. _`OpenPGP`: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretty_Good_Privacy
.. _`Chinese Remainder Theorem`: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_%28cryptosystem%29#Using_the_Chinese_remainder_algorithm
.. _`security proof`: https://eprint.iacr.org/2001/062.pdf
.. _`recommended padding algorithm`: https://www.daemonology.net/blog/2009-06-11-cryptographic-right-answers.html
.. _`proven secure`: https://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~mihir/papers/oaep.pdf

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